The role of law in the study of the relation genes with violence and behavior, and their consequences
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.61841/cmqd9022Keywords:
role of law, relation genes with violence and behaviorAbstract
Progress and development in behavioral genetics research and the relationship of genes to violence have reached the point where genes are carefully identified and identified to make people with these genes more predisposed to crime, aggression, and violence. An important question that now arises in criminal justice is the extent to which the results of these studies are being used to investigate the facts and to ensure rights by using these new criminal evidences. So far, there have been many studies on the relationship of genetic material in humans with the onset of violence and aggression or the emergence of certain behaviors that require serious attention. In this study, the role of chromosomes and genes in the development of violence and aggression in humans was discussed, and on the other hand, legal and judicial issues related to these cases were discussed with a number of trials in the countries of the world that used the role of genes and chromosomes as defense evidence for mitigation or exempting the defendants from responsibility for the crime. There seems to be a great tendency among the international judiciary to go deeper into the role of genetic material in violence, crime, and behavior to the extent that they tend to use accurate scientific evidence when making a judgment. This study concludes that the findings of behavioral genetics research call upon all judicial institutions and officials to pay high attention to these results and to study the possibility of using them even on a small scale as evidence in the courts for the purpose of developing the capacity of the Iraqi judiciary to guarantee the rights of the individual.
Downloads
References
[1].Lombroso, C. (1911). Crime: Its causes and remedies., Little, Brown, Boston.
[2].Jacobs,P.A., Brunton,M., Melville, M.M., Brittain,R.P., Mcclemont, W.F. (1965). Aggressive Behaviour, Mental Subnormality and the XYY Male. Nature 208:1351 – 1352. doi:10.1038/2081351a0.
[3].Al-Adeeb, A.M A-H., Ibrahim, S.M., Yaseen,N.Y. (2016). The genetic bases of aggression and violence: Part one- role of the chromosomes. Iq J. Ca. Med. Genet. 9:205-212.
[4].Brunner, H.G., Nelen, M., Breakefield, X.O., Ropers, H.H., van Oost, B.A.(1993b). Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A. Science. 262:578-580.
[5].Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T.E., Mill., J, Martin, J., Craig, I.W., Taylor, A., Poulton, R.(2002a). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science 297: 851–854.
[6].Wasserman, D. (2004). Is there value in identifying individual genetic predispositions to violence? J. Law. Med. Ethics 32:24-33.
[7].Forzano,F., Borry,P., Cambon-Thomsen,A., Hodgson,S.V., Tibben,A., de Vries,P., van El,C., Cornel,M. (2010). Italian appeal court: a genetic predisposition to commit murder? Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 18: 519-521. doi: 10.1038/ejhg.2010.31
[8]. Farisco,M., Petrini,C. (2012).The Impact of Neuroscience and Genetics on the Law: A Recent Italian Case. Neuroethics 5:317-319.
[9].Appelbaum, P.S. (2005). Behavioral genetics and the punishment of crime. Law Psychiat. 56: 25-27.
[10]. Mykitiuk, R., Pioro, M., Finkler, L., Nisker, J. (2011). The potential for misusing “genetic predisposition” in Canadian courts and tribunals. CMAJ. 183:1601-1604. doi:10.1503/cmaj.110260.
[11]. Al-Adeeb,A.M.A. Ibrahim,S.M., Yaseen,N.Y. (2017). The genetic bases of aggression and violence: Part tworole of the genes. Iq.J.Ca.Med.Gent. 10:
[12]. Al-Adeeb,A.M.A., Alsaedy, F.Sh.H., Ali,A.M., Ahmed,A.A., Yaseen,N.Y. (2015). Some cytogenetic, psychological, sociological aspects on intersex cases in Iraq. Irq. J. Ca.Med.Genet. 8:203- 211.
[13]. Ezkurdia1, I., Juan,D., Rodriguez,J.M., Frankish, A., Diekhans, M., Harrow,J., Vazquez,J., Valencia,A., Tress, M.L. (2014). Multiple evidence strands suggest that there may be as few as 19 000 human protein-coding genes. Hum. Mol.Gen. 23:5866-5878.
[14]. Tremblay, R.E..(2000). The development of aggressive behavior during childhood: What have we learned in the past century? Intern.J. Behav. Develop. 24 :129–141.
[15]. Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T.E., Taylor, A., Craig, I.W., Harrington, H., McClay, J., Mill, J., Martin, J., Braithwaite, A., Poulton, R. (2003). Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science 301:386-9.
[16]. Lacourse, E., BoivinM., M. Brendgen,M., Petitclerc,A., Girard,A., Vitaro,F., S. Paquin,S., Ouellet-Morin,I., Dionne,G., Tremblay,R.E. (2014). A longitudinal twin study of physical aggression during early childhood: evidence for a developmentally dynamic genome. Psych. Med. 44:2617-2627. doi:10.1017/S0033291713003218.
[17]. Hudziak, J.J, van Beijsterveldt, C.E., Bartels, M., Rietveld, M.J., Rettew D.C., Derks, E.M., Boomsma, D.I. 2003). Individual differences in aggression: genetic analyses by age, gender, and informant in 3-, 7-, and 10-year-old Dutch twins. Behav Genet. 33:575-89.
[18]. Boomsma, D.L., van Beijsterveldt, C.E.M., Hudziak, J.J. (2005). Genetic and environmental influences on Anxious/Depression during childhood: a study from the Netherlands Twin Register. Gen. Brain Behav. 4: 466–481.
[19]. Rushton, J.P., Fulker, D.W., Neale, M.C., Nias, D.K., Eysenck, H.J. (1986). Altruism and aggression: the heritability of individual differences. J. person.soc.psych. 50:1192-1198.
[20]. Winerman, L. (2004). A second look at twin studies as behavioral genetics enters a second century, the field’s oldest research method remains both relevant and controversial. Am. Psych.Assoc.35:46. Deleted.
[21]. Mednick, S.A, Gabrielli, W.H, Hutchings, B. (1984).Genetic influences in crime convictions: evidence from and adoption cohort. Science. 224:891–894.
[22]. Brennan, P.A., Mednick, S.A., Jacobsen, B. (1996). Assessing the role of genetics in crime using adoption cohorts. Ciba Found. Symp. 194:115-23; discussion 123-28.
[23]. Hjalmarsson, R., Lindquist, M.J. (2013). The origins of intergenerational associations in crime: Lessons from Swedish adoption data. Labour Econom. 20:68–81.
[24]. Lane R. (1989). On the social meaning of homicide trends in America. In: Gurr TR, editor. Violence in America, Volume 1: The History of Crime. pp. 55-79 New York: Sage Publications.
[25]. Van Vechten CC.(1941). The criminality of the foreign born. J. Crimin. Law Criminol. 32:139-47.
[26]. Moehling,C, Piehl, A.M. (2009). Immigration, crime, and incarceration in early twentieth-century America. Demography. 464: 739-763.
[27]. Feldmeyer, B.(2009). Immigration and violence: the offsetting effects of immigrant concentration on Latino violence. Soc. Sci. Res. 38:717-731.
[28]. Teodorović,S., Uzelac, B.(2015). Genetic basis of aggression: Overview and implications for legal proceedings. Rom J Leg Med 23:193-202. doi: 10.4323/rjlm.2015.193.
[29]. Craig,I.W., Halton, K.E. (2009).Genetics of human aggressive behavior. Hum. Genet. 126:101–113. doi:10.1007/s00439-009- 0695-9.
[30]. Miles, D.R., Carey, G. (1997) Genetic and environmental architec-ture of human aggression. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 72:207–217.
[31]. Rhee, S.H., Waldman, I.D. (2002) Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior: a meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies.Psychol. Bull. 128:490–529.
[32]. Carey, C.E., Agrawal, A., Bucholz, K.K., Hartz, S.M., Lynskey, M.T., Nelson, E.C., Bierut, L.J., Bogdan, R. (2016). Associations between Polygenic Risk for Psychiatric Disorders and Substance Involvement. Front. Genet.7:149-. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2016.00149.
[33]. Bienvenu, O.J.,Davydow,D.S., Kendler, K.S. (2011). Psychiatric‘diseases’ versus behavioral disorders and degree of genetic influence. Psychol.Med. 41:33–40. doi:10.1017/ S003329171000084X.
[34]. Van Inwagen,P., ( 2001). Genes, Statistics, and Desert. In Wasserman, D. and Wachbroit, R. Genetics and Criminal Behaviour. PP:228, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
[35]. Al-Adeeb,A.M-H. (2015). Authoritarian personality and its relation to ethnic identity (Analytic study of citizeinship). Arabic Edition. PP.42. Al-Maghrib Press. Baghdad, Iraq.
[36]. Visootsak, J., Graham, J.M., Jr. (2009). Social function in multiple X and Y chromosome disorders: XXY, XYY, XXYY, XXXY. Devel. Disabil. Res. Rev. 15:328-32.
[37]. Morris,J.K., Alberman, E., Scott, C., Jacobs, P. (2008). Is the prevalence of Klinefelter syndrome increasing? Europ. J. Hum. Genet. 16:163–170.
[38]. Nielsen, J., Wohlert, M.(1990). Sex chromosome abnormalities found among 34,910 newborn children:results from a 13-year incidence study in Arhus, Denmark. Birth Defects Orig Artic Ser. 26: 209-223.
[39]. Nielsen, J., Johnsen, S. G., & Sorensen, K. (1980). Follow-up 10 years later of 34 Klinefelter males with karyotype 47,XXY and 16 hypogonadal males with karyotype 46,XXY. Psycho.Med.10: 345–352.
[40]. Ross, J.L., Roeltgen, D.P., Kushner, H., Zinn, A.R., Reiss,A., Bardsley, M.Z., McCauley, E., Tartaglia, N.(2012). Behavioral and Social Phenotypes in Boys With 47,XYY Syndrome or 47,XXY Klinefelter Syndrome. Pediatrics 129:769–778.
[41]. Geschwind, D. H., Boone, K. B., Miller, B. L., Swerdloff, R. S.(2000). Neurobehavioral phenotype of Klinefelter syndrome. Mental Retard. Devel. Disab. Res.Rev. 6:107–116.
[42]. Ross, J.L., Stefanatos, G.A., Roeltgen, D. (2007). Klinefelter syndrome. In: Mazzucco MM, Ross LJ (eds). Neurogenetic Developmental Disorders: Variation of Manifestation in Childhood. Boston, USA: MIT Press.
[43]. Grace, R.J.(2004). Klinefelter’s syndrome: a late diagnosis. Lancet. 364:284.
[44]. Turriff, A., Levy,H.P. , Biesecker, B. (2011). Prevalence and psychosocial correlates of depressive symptoms among adolescents and adults with Klinefelter syndrome. Genet. Med.13:966 –972.
[45]. Stochholm, K., Bojesen, A., Jensen, A.S., Juul, S., Gravholt, C.H. (2012). Criminality in men with Klinefelter’s syndrome and XYY syndrome: a cohort study. B.M.J .Open 2:e000650.doi: 10.1136/ bmjopen-2011-000650.
[46]. Al-Adeeb, A.M.H. Al-Saedy,F.S., Yaseen.N.Y. (2014). Klinefelter Syndrome in infertile and prisoners men in Iraq: Cytogenetic and some aspects of psychological and social studies. Irq.J.Ca.Med. Genet. 7:77-85.
[47]. Verri,A. , Cremante,A., Clerici,F., Destefani,V. , Radicioni, A. (2010). Klinefelter’s syndrome and psychoneurologic function. Mol. Hum. Reprod. 16: 425–433.
[48]. Milunsky, J.M. (2010). Prenatal diagnosis of sex chromosome abnormalities. In Milunsky, A., Milunsky, J.M. Genetic disorders and the fetus: diagnosis, prevention and treatment. (6th ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 273–312.
[49]. Gardner, R.J. McKinlay, Sutherland, Grant R. (2004). Chromosome abnormalities and genetic counseling .(3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 29–30.
[50]. Leggett, V., Jacobs, P., Nation, K., Scerif, G., Bishop, D. V. M. (2010). Neurocognitive outcomes of individuals with a sex chromosome trisomy: XXX, XYY, or XXY: a systematic review. Dev. Med. Child Neurol. 52: 119–129. doi:10.1111/j.1469- 8749.2009.03545.x.
[51]. Price, W. H., Whatmore, P. B. (1967). Behavior disorders and patterns of crime among XYY males identified at a Maximum-Security Hospital. Br.Med.Bull. 1: 533-536.
[52]. Witkin, H.A., Mednick, S.A., Schulsinger, F., Bakkestrøm, E., Christiansen, K. O., Goodenough, D. R., Hirschhorn, K., Lundsteen, C., Owen, D.R.. Philip, J., Rubin, D.B., Stocking, M. (1976). Criminality in XYY and XXY men. Science. 193 :547- 555. doi:10.1126/science.959813.
[53]. Walzer, S., Gerald, P.S., Shah, S.A. (1978).The XYY genotype. Ann. Rev. Med. 29:568-570.
[54]. Götz, M.J., Johnstone, E.C., Ratcliffe, S.G. (1999). Criminality and antisocial behaviour in unselected men with sex chromosome abnormalities. Psychol. Med. 29:953-962.
[55]. Stochholm, K., Bojesen, A., Jensen, A.S., Juul, S., Gravholt,C.H. (2016).Criminality in men with Klinefelter’s syndrome and XYY syndrome: a cohort. study. BMJ Open 2012;2:e000650. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2011-000650.
[56]. Meyne, J., Ratliff, R. L. & Moyzis, R. K. (1989). Conservation of the Human Telomere Sequence (Ttaggg)N among Vertebrates. Proc.Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 86:7049-7053.
[57]. Okereke, O.I., Prescott, J., Wong, J.Y.Y., Han, J., Rexrode, K.M., De Vivo, I.(2012). High phobic anxiety is related to lower leukocyte telomere length in women. PLoS One 7 :e40516.
[58]. O’Donovan, A., Epel, E., Lin, J., Wolkowitz O, Cohen B, Maguen S, Metzler T, Lenoci M, Blackburn E, Neylan TC. (2011). Childhood trauma associated with short leukocyte telomere length in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiat. 70 : 465–471.
[59]. Tyrka, A.R., Price, L.H., Kao, H.-T., Porton, B., Marsella, S.A., Carpenter, L.L.(2010). Childhood maltreatment and telomere shortening: preliminary support for an effect of early stress on cellular aging. Biol. Psychiat.67 :531–534.
[60]. Epel, E.S., Blackburn, E.H., Lin, J., Firdaus S. Dhabhar, F.S., Nancy E. Adler, N.E., Jason D. Morrow , J.D., Richard M. Cawthon, R.M. (2004). Accelerated telomere shortening in response to life stress. PNAS 101:17312–17315.
[61]. Verhoeven, J.E., van Oppen, P., Puterman, E., Elzinga, B, Penninx, BW, (2015). The association of early and recent psychosocial life stress with leukocyte telomere length. In: Psychosom. Med. 77:882–891.
[62]. Oliveira, B., Zunzunegui, M.V., Quinlan, J., Fahmi, H., Tu, M.T., Guerra, R., (2016). Systematic review of the association between chronic social stress and telomere length: a life course perspective. Ageing Res. Rev. 26:37–52.
[63]. Mathur, M.B., Epel, E., Kind, S., Desai, M., Parks, C.G., Sandler, D.P., Khazeni, N. (2016). Perceived stress and telomere length: A systematic review, meta-analysis, and methodologic considerations for advancing the field. Brain Behav. Immun. 54:158-69. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2016.02.002.
[64]. Simon, N.M., Smoller, J.W., McNamara, K.L., Maser, R.S., Zalta, A.K., Pollack, M.H., Nierenberg, A.A., Fava, M., Wong, K.K.. (2006). Telomere shortening and mood disorders: preliminary support for a chronic stress model of accelerated aging. Biol Psychiat. 60:432–435.
[65]. Wolkowitz, O.M., Mellon, S.H., Epel, E.S., Lin, J., Dhabhar, F.S., Su, Y., Reus, V.I., Rosser, R., Burke, H.M., Kupferman, E., Compagnone, M., Nelson, J.C., Blackburn, E.H. (2011). Leukocyte telomere length in major depression: correlations with chronicity, inflammation and oxidative stress—preliminary findings. PLoS One. 6:e17837.
[66]. Karabatsiakis, A., Kolassa, I.T., Kolassa, S., Rudolph, K.L., Dietrich, D.E. (2014). Telomere shortening in leukocyte subpopulations in depression. BMC Psychiatry. 14:192. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-14-192.
[67]. Polho, G.B., De-Paula , V.J., Cardillo ,G., dos Santos ,B., . Kerr ,D.S. (2015). Leukocyte telomere length in patients with schizophrenia: A meta-analysis, Schizophr Res. 165:195-200. doi:10.1016/j. schres.2015.04.025.
[68]. Kao,H-T., Cawthon,R.M., DeLisi,L.E., Bertisch,H.C., Ji,F., Gordon,D., Li,P., Benedict,M.M., Greenberg,W.M.,Porton,B. (2008).Rapid telomere erosion in schizophrenia. Mol. Psychiat. 13:118–119. doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4002105.
[69]. Park, M., Verhoeven, J.E., Cuijpers, P., Reynolds, III C.F., Penninx, B.W. (2015). Where you live may make you old: The association between perceived poor neighborhood quality and leukocyte telomere length. PLoS One. 10:e0128460. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0128460.
[70]. Theall,K.P., Shirtcliff,E.A., Dismukes, A.R., Wallace, M., Drury, S. S. (2016). Association Between Neighborhood Violence and Biological Stress in Children. JAMA Pediatr. Nov. 14 doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2016.2321.
[71]. Gebreab, S.Y., Riestra, P., Gaye, A., Khan, R.J., Xu, R., Davis,A.R., Quarells, R.C., Davis, S.K., Gibbons, G.H. (2016). Perceived neighborhood problems are associated with shorter telomere length in African American women. Psychoneuroendocrin. 69:90-97. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.03.018.
[72]. Chae, D.H., Epel, E.S., Nuru-Jeter, A.M., Lincoln, K.D., Taylor, R.J., Lin, J., Blackburn, E.H., Thomas, S.B.
(2016). Discrimination, mental health, and leukocyte telomere length among African American men. Psychoneuroendocrin. 63:10-16. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.09.001.
[73]. Nelson, C.A., Varcin, K.J., Coman, N.K., De Vivo, I., Tager-Flusberg, H. (2015). Shortened telomeres in families with a propensity to autism. J. Am. Acad. Child. Adolesc. Psychiat. 54:588- 594.doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2015.04.006.
[74]. Roen,K. (2004). Intersex embodiment: When health care means maintaining binary sex. Sex Health 1:127-130.
[75]. Feder, E.K., Karkazis,K.(2008), “What’s in a name? The controversy over ‘Disorders of sex development,’” Hastings Center Report 38, no. 5: 33-36.
[76]. Blackless,M., Charuvastra,A., Derryck,A., Fausto-Sterling,A.,Lauzanne,K., Lee,E. (2000). How Sexually Dimorphic Are We? Review and Synthesis. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 12:151–166
[77]. Sax, L.(2002). How common is intersex? a response to Anne Fausto-Sterling. J. Sex Res.39:174-178.
[78]. Roen,K. (2008). But we have to do something’: Surgical `correction’ of atypical genitalia. Body Society 14:47-66.
[79]. Karkazis,K.A. (2006). Early genital surgery to remain controversial. Pediatrics 118:814-815.
[80]. Karkazis, K., . Rossi,W.C.(2010). Ethics for the Pediatician: Disorders of Sex Development: Optimizing Care. Pediat.Rev. 31:c82-c85.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2020 AUTHOR
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
You are free to:
- Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format for any purpose, even commercially.
- Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially.
- The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as you follow the license terms.
Under the following terms:
- Attribution — You must give appropriate credit , provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made . You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
- No additional restrictions — You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits.
Notices:
You do not have to comply with the license for elements of the material in the public domain or where your use is permitted by an applicable exception or limitation .
No warranties are given. The license may not give you all of the permissions necessary for your intended use. For example, other rights such as publicity, privacy, or moral rights may limit how you use the material.
